The author, a West African professor, traces the historical development of policies toward the use of indigenous languages in West Africa. He also describes some current programs of mother tongue medium (MTM) education. Despite a number of barriers (he lists six types) to the use of indigenous languages in education in West Africa, Bamgbose is optimistic concerning MTM programs. “It is this type of program that will ultimately enhance the status of the indigenous languages and make primary education more meaningful for the African child” (64).

“extract from a proposal for funding”

A study aimed at discovering differences (both in linguistic form and social function) between written and oral language in a community in which literacy is a recent phenomenon.

Brandt explains nonacceptance of VL literacy among some Amerindian groups of the southwest in relation to religious values and world view. The Pueblo secrecy complex, in particular, opposes literacy in both the VL and English. The Zuni are also cited as a culture whose religion mitigates against recording or writing the VL.

The author uses Goody's concept of “restricted literacy” to examine a case of literacy in the Yemen Arabic Republic. “A key element in systems of 'restricted literacy' is the social fact of elite control of the literate functions” (43). Since social stratification is a prerequisite for the development of “restricted literacy,” those promoting vernacular literacy in stratified societies should be aware of the nature of this phenomenon.

Among other topics, Cohen discusses the question of which language is best for initial literacy in a multilingual setting. He discusses the “argument that it is easier to transfer from a second language back to the native language than to do the reverse” (174), in contrast to Gudschinsky's reasoning. [It is interesting to note that the transfer of learning is from L2 to L1 in a substantial number of SIL-sponsored vernacular literacy programs.] The author does not favor one language above another for initial reading instruction, but rather discusses some of the relevant factors involved in making a decision in that regard.

Cooper's definition of language spread and his discussion of diffusion of innovation research are quite useful for understanding the spread of VL literacy. Lieberson discusses the forces affecting language spread and summarizes them in seven propositions. Scotton deals with the spread of lingua francas (which include NLs) as related to integration into national life. Ferguson discusses the place of religious factors in language spread. The spread of religions that are tied to a holy book is especially important in the spread of literacy. Heath and Laprade illustrate the dynamics of a conquering people's attempt to replace VLs with Spanish.

This volume grew out of a workshop held under the auspices of the United Nations University in Tokyo in September 1982. It is especially valuable in that it contains the viewpoints of some representatives of developing countries concerning the problems of language and literacy which so abound in the developing world. Coulmas gives an excellent overview of the issues involved, focusing on two major problems present in the third world, whose solutions can be in direct conflict:

1. “The problem of eradicating illiteracy”
2. “The problem of protecting linguistic and cultural minorities” (5)

Alisjahbana illustrates the dynamics of the tension between promoting a NL and preserving VLs within the Indonesian context. Bamgbose presents some of the practical problems in developing VLs for literacy from a West African perspective. Srivastava, in three articles, discusses literacy education for India's minorities. He considers the question of which language to use a medium for initial education and advocates the use of the mother tongue in the script of the regional language. This would entail script pluralism in India, which he feels would be beneficial in several ways in this culturally plural nation. Neustupny concludes the volume with a developmental typology that encourages us to interpret the problems of language and literacy within each country, based on the particular socioeconomic setting of that country.

The authors report findings of their 1985 research in PNG regarding cognitive development and reading proficiency. Their conclusions favor initial reading instruction in the vernacular and the continued development of vernacular preschools in PNG.

The authors examine the far reaching effects of formal education on Samoan village children. “In the course of transmitting literacy skills, the instructor exposes and socializes children to new expectations surrounding the adult-child relationship and task accomplishment” (214). Though these changes in orientation are dramatic, they mainly effect those who continue their education beyond primary school and those who leave the village for work or further study. The majority of rural Samoans shift back to traditional views of adult-child relationships and task accomplishment when out of the context of school.

This paper reviews eight case studies in dealing with the question: “In a multilingual society, what is the best choice of language as the initial language of instruction … ?” (First or second language?) Dutcher concludes that “the answers must be found on a case-by-case basis,” taking into account the child's linguistic and cognitive development in his first language, language attitudes of parents, and status of the languages in question.

One of the clearest and fairest examinations of this topic.

The use of Guarani as a vernacular language spoken throughout Paraguay--and having the status of a national language, along with Spanish--is a unique situation in Latin America. This article traces the written tradition of Guarani and describe contemporary uses and promotion of Guarani literacy. “In Paraguay, as in other developing nations, the attempt to assign or re-assign new or expanded functions, such as literacy, to vernacular languages is an important but complex task” (66).

Chapter 11 of this important book is devoted to vernacular education. He considers the 1951 UNESCO recommendation that the mother tongue be used as the medium of instruction in primary education. He seeks to answer the questions: Is it possible? Does it work? Is it worth it? He gives five criteria to aid in deciding whether it is worth it or not and then uses Frisian to illustrate his points.

This case study of the missionary work of St. Stefan illustrates wise decisions regarding vernacular literacy and national development.

The author describes three contrastive patterns of learning to read in Ethiopia. Two of these patterns are traditional literacies (church-school and Quranic) and the third is a modern type of literacy (adult campaign). Each of these different patterns is examined in terms of goals, the writing system, languages involved, methods of instruction, and the setting in which instruction takes place. Ferguson concludes the article with a discussion of trends and pedagogical implications.

“Societal biliteracy is relatively unproblematic” given a multilingual society in which literacy is valued and supported. This is the author's conclusion upon comparison of five schools in New York which teach literacy in different languages.

Examines important considerations for developing literacy in multilingual countries. The bilingual classroom in the USA is in focus, but the authors try to place it in world perspective.

The authors challenge “three common assumptions”:

1. Oral proficiency is a prerequisite for learning to read.
2. Phonics is the ideal method for teaching reading in languages with a “more 'regular' grapheme-phoneme relationship.”
3. “Decoding” fallacy: “reading is responding to print with speech.”

The authors' suggestions regarding teaching reading in a bilingual classroom are based on the notion that reading is the “process of constructing meaning from print.”

A reader produced for the International Institute for Adult Literacy Methods. Gorman's introduction sets each of the papers in perspective. His overview (final chapter) reconsiders the question of whether or not literacy in the mother tongue is always the best choice, bringing recent research into the discussion.

The first part of this book is made up of articles applying social science theory to the teaching of reading:

The second part of the book illustrates principles discussed in Part 1 through descriptions of literacy problems in a number of different locations:

Some of the articles here have been published elsewhere and some were written specifically for this volume.

The author summarizes four bilingual education programs in which SIL has had involvement and lists eight advantages these programs afford their pupils and which contribute to their success. She classifies these factors as either social and psychological or pedagogical and linguistic.

Heath discusses functions of literacy in societies past and present apart from literacy as a function of school. After reviewing the literature, she describes the functions of literacy in the southern community which was the object of her study,Ways with words:

instrumental, social-interactional, news-related, memory-supportive, substitutes for oral messages, provision of permanent record, confirmation.

The author concludes with some implications from her study for fostering literacy.

Heath reviews the literature of the sociolinguistics of literacy under the following headings: the teaching of literacy, the societal context, and cognitive and linguistic features. Most of the research on literacy has focused on acquisition, rather than to retention of literacy. Research that has considered literacy retention has discovered “three major factors in literacy retention: the close links necessary between language and literacy planning, the importance of opportunities for oral use of the knowledge gained through literacy, and the critical support of institutions beyond the family” (45).

Henne examines a program of VL literacy conducted by the Summer Institute of Linguistics among the Maya Quiche from a macrosociolinguistic perspective. The major reasons for which she attributed the lack of VL literacy acceptance are the following:

• Lack of positive cultural/linguistic image among the Quiche
• Poor attitude toward written and spoken Quiche
• Limited domains for the VL
• Slow but inexorable language shift
• A governmental policy favoring assimilation and the extinction of minor languages
• “Lack of a natural unifying framework to sponsor the use of VL literature”

This article examines the function of Arabic and Arabic literacy in Muslim boarding schools (pesantren) in Java. The purpose of these secondary schools was to “reproduce a religious elite” (84). The spread of Indonesia has changed the role of these schools, and Arabic literacy. Pesantren now concentrate less on Arabic and more on education in line with the focus on development in Indonesia. “With increasing literacy, written words inspire less awe, and authority and literacy become less closely associated” (92).

Litteral describes the factors that need to be considered for effective vernacular language planning (that is, development of minority languages for literacy), both from the perspective of language ecology, as well as planning processes.

The author considers the question, “What happens to an 'exotic' language when it suddenly acquires a literary medium?” as she traces the development of a written style in Mohawk.

The author makes the assertion that education in the mother tongue is a fundamental human right. He also builds a case for vernacular medium education based on pragmatic and economic reasons in the Indian context.

This case study contrasts the societal functions of two distinct literacies practiced in a rural Eskimo community: village literacy and outside literacy. Village literacy descended from Russian colonization and missionary work, using both Slavonic and Alutiiq, written in Cyrillic script. Outside literacy--in English--came through Americanization of the area. Literacy has a vital role in this community and is intimately linked with ethnic identity.

From Chapter 3, “The Modern consciousness and literacy”: drawing on their research with Native Americans, the Scollons point to the imposition of a foreign type of literacy on the target community, which causes “a crisis in ethnic identity,” as an explanation of the nonacceptance of vernacular literacy. Involvement of the community in decisions regarding the forms that literacy will take is a key to nonviolation of ethnic identity and, thus, the acceptance of vernacular literacy. Issues surrounding ethnic identity affect the choice of orthography, the type of literature produced, the ways in which literacy is acquired and practiced, and so forth.

Chapter 5 contrasts “bush consciousness” and modern consciousness and describes how the former expresses itself through oral narratives.

The authors present findings of a five-year case study of the Vai people of Liberia, who developed their own script for the VL. The chapter entitled “Literacy and its characteristics” details the different functions literacy has for the Vai in the VL, Arabic, and English. Scribner and Cole also deal with the topics of the social correlates of literacy, the relationship of literacy to education, the practice of literacy, and so forth.

From the author's broad survey of literacy workers (many SILers) he seeks “to isolate some of the more important sociocultural and linguistic variables that affect the creation and development of orthographies for unwritten languages” (260). He concludes that sociocultural variables are the most crucial and “any scientifically based, yet socially acceptable, orthography … represents a compromise …” (273) among those factors.

The author draws heavily on the writings of Goody as he explores the meaning and use of literacy in society and some of the implications of introducing literacy in a preliterate society. Literacy is “decontextualized,” “objective,” and “primarily individual.” “Modern literacy is correlated with urbanization and with the growth of transportation and infrastructure” (127). “Written language is … associated with a movement away from the local and the communal” (129).

In summary, the author speaks of literacy as the “tip of a developmental iceberg.” Consistent use of written language comes after a considerable amount of development. “Literacy ultimately contributes to development, but there is no very strong evidence … that in and of itself it necessarily takes any one person very far in development … unless the changed conditions are present, the different communicative needs will not be present. Unless the 'need' is there, the new communicative medium (for example, writing) will not stick. This suggests that new conditions and ideas and outlooks come first, the technology of literacy second … it only makes sense to introduce the technology if you introduce at the same time the new world views, the new outlooks, the new contexts” (134).

If these assertions are valid, they should affect the timing and the way in which we promote vernacular Scriptures among unreached peoples.

Language policies in New Zealand have fluctuated between support for the development of Maori in education and assimilationist policies aimed at a shift to English. Smith traces the history of these policies as a means for understanding the issues involved in planning a program of bilingual education.

The author applies an anthropological perspective to the study of literacy and illiteracy in the USA. “Illiteracy is seen as extremely complex including the discovery that there are any number of different illiteracies and the realization that under some conditions illiteracy is not in itself a problem. The causes of illiteracy are also seen as multiple, frequently results or symptoms of social and economic exclusion, rather than the causes …” (274).

The authors compare several cases of VL literacy and hypothesize about the sociolinguistic dynamics of acceptance and nonacceptance. They focus on the function of literacy in the society and the domains in which it functions. They conclude that VL literacy is most likely to be accepted if literacy appears to be useful in some traditional domain and for communicative functions that are congruent with traditional culture.

Spolsky gives five factors that account for a shift from the assumption that the mother tongue is always the best option for initial literacy instruction. He goes on to sketch a model to explain language choice--specifically for literacy, but more generally valid--whose prime elements are status, social group or speech community, and values. He draws on examples from Navajo to describe societies that are “monoglossic in a vernacular and monoliterate in another language” (483)--a situation that he states is not uncommon.

The sociolinguistics of literacy studies “literacy as a social phenomenon, looking at the role played by the written language in the functioning of a community” (142--143). In this article, Spolsky discusses some of the basic tenants of this new discipline and applies them to three “different situations involving language minority education.”

Spolsky makes another interesting and thought-provoking contribution to the sociolinguistics of literacy with this case study of the societal functions of written language in first century Palestine. His useful introduction defines the sociolinguistics of literacy as a field of study, providing context for the case study which follows.

Street examines literacy from a social anthropology perspective. He contrasts two models of literacy in an attempt to challenge existing assumptions about literacy.

“The 'autonomous' model of literacy is based on a Western 'essay-text' form of literacy, which associates literacy with 'progress', 'civilization', individual liberty, and social mobility … It isolates literacy as an independent variable and then claims to study its consequences” (2). Goody is most representative of this model.

Against this backdrop, Street describes his view of literacy, the “ideological” model, which concentrates on “the specific social practices of reading and writing.” “The model stresses the significance of the socialisation process in the construction of the meaning of literacy for participants…. It concentrates on the overlap and interaction of oral and literate modes …” (2).

In presenting these models, the author's goal is to stimulate “a more explicit theoretical foundation for descriptions of literacy practice and for cross-cultural comparison” (3). In the second part of the book, Street applies his theories to two types in literacy practiced in Iran in the 1970s and then discusses some international literacy programs.

This paper describes Quranic education in Yemen and Senegal, the sociopolitical role of the teacher, and the methods of reading instruction.

Literacy was traditionally practiced only by the elite in Morocco. This study focuses on the spread of Arabic literacy to the masses within this multilingual, multiliterate, multiclass society. “We attempt to provide a framework for understanding the 'culture' of literacy in Morocco, with the additional aim of providing a general model for studying literacy in other complex societies” (237).

Through a review of the literature on language shift and language death, the author draws out a constellation of recurring sociolinguistic variables. He hypothesizes that the same factors that precipitate language shift are related to nonacceptance of vernacular literacy. Walker then analyzes two Amerindian cases in which the degree of vernacular literacy acceptance varies greatly to test his hypothesis. He concludes by trying to predict vernacular literacy acceptance in an Indonesian community where he has done fieldwork.

This paper discusses sociolinguistic variables thought to be pertinent to predicting the acceptance of vernacular literacy, especially within the context of eastern Indonesia. The author also describes appropriate methods of survey research and data analysis.

This paper reviews recent literature on vernacular literacy and education as a means to examining assumptions commonly held by SIL fieldworkers who promote vernacular literacy. Next, common hindrances to the acceptance and ongoing use of vernacular literacy are examined along with suggestions for overcoming them. The author concludes with contrastive case studies of two vernacular literacy programs in Irian Jaya, Indonesia.

Why some minority-language groups are more receptive to the planned introduction of vernacular (VL) literacy than others is explored in this report of doctoral research in the sociolinguistics of literacy. With a view toward developing a model for explaining and predicting the acceptance of VL literacy, this study seeks to answer the question: “Which sociolinguistic variables best predict the acceptance of VL literacy minority-language groups?”

Quantitative data was obtained from SIL fieldworkers in eight countries for 54 VL literacy programs. Statistical analyses were used to determine relationships between four criteria of VL literacy acceptance and a number of predictor variables. Four case studies from Mexico confirmed the validity of the predictor variables' relationships to VL literacy acceptance and illustrated ways in which the variables interacted.

An analysis of why literacy in the vernacular was so widely adopted by the Dani people of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. The social functions of both vernacular and national language literacy are described as Dani literacy is placed within the context of the developing field of the sociolinguistics of literacy.

A brief, nontechnical description of Walker's dissertation (Walker 1987a) without the case studies from Mexico. The research instrument and the basic statistical tables are appended.

A brief, statistical description of Walker's dissertation (Walker 1987a) without the case studies from Mexico.

Application of Walker's dissertation research to the assessment of a community's attitudes toward vernacular literacy.

Indians of the northeast once used written mnemonic aids as catalysts for accurate recitations of oral literature. Based on the ideas of Spolsky and Irvine, we would think that this practice would pave the way for the acceptance of VL literacy. However, Walker's evidence suggests that the people perceive VL literacy as threatening rather than supporting their traditional ways. [There must be some other explanatory factors.]

Walker divides the question of VL literacy acceptance into four components. In order for a community to accept VL literacy, they must accept:

1. “The innovators and others associated with the program”
2. “The usefulness of literacy”
3. “The content of any literature produced”
4. The writing system

Walker examines the Cherokee literacy movement of the 1820s for factors that may be important for understanding VL literacy acceptance today. These include the following: “adult participation, the absence of formalism, adaptability to both sacred and secular purposes, and lack of control by any White educational institution.”

The author was a prime mover in the development of written Navajo. Here he traces the development of orthography and literature, mainly from the perspective of the US government.